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journal of diabetes and clinical research predatory

Europe SW Asia Fig. The sizes of grey circles are proportional to mtDNA-type frequency in the respective populations.

journal of diabetes and clinical research predatory

Small uncoloured circles denote mtDNA types not found in the regional population. Black dots are hypothetical intermediates. Uncoloured squares are wolf mtDNA types.

  • Наконец, планета оправилась, и горстка оставшихся в океане октопауков выбралась на сушу, но они не нашли там ни своей родни, ни Предтеч.
  • Впрочем, стараясь быть объективными, все четверо взрослых признали, что, поскольку сами они решили отложить половую зрелость, то не могут дать совет, основанный на собственном опыте.
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Subclusters of clade A discussed in the main text, three in the East Asian and one in the European network, are marked by black lines. Under the assumption that the clade originates from a single wolf mtDNA type, the age of the clade will approximately correspond to the origin of the dogs originating from that female wolf.

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However, there are two problems with the available data that render a precise dating of the origin of the dog based on the available mtDNA data impossible.

The rst problem concerns the dating of the palaeontological x-point needed to calibrate the mutation rate.

The wild canid most closely related to the wolf is the coyote, and the time for the split into two species from their common ancestor is the best available calibrating point for the mutation rate of dog mtDNA. Counting the number of sequence differences between wolf and coyote in the analysed mtDNA region, and dividing by the divergence time, gives the mutation rate.

However, while a rst appearance of wolves ~, years ago and of coyotes ~1 million years ago Kurtn, journal of diabetes and clinical research predatory Kurtn and Anderson, indicates a date for the divergence between the two species of approximately 1 million years ago, the time of divergence has not been denitely established and an earlier date of up to approximately 2 million years cannot be ruled out.

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Therefore, without more exact palaeontological evidence, a precise dating of the 32 P. Savolainen origin of the dog will not be possible, but it can nevertheless give an indication of the probable range of time, and this information can be used together with other data from the archaeological record on the rst appearance of dogs.

To simplify the following argument, the 1-million-year date for the wolfcoyote divergence will be used for the calculations based on mtDNA, but bearing in mind the possibility that the split occurred up to 2 million years ago, in which case the age of the datings should be doubled.

The second problem is that the mutation rate of the analysed base pairs region does not give resolution between mtDNA types in the time scale needed to monitor the last 20, or 30, years.

journal of diabetes and clinical research predatory

According to the calculations above, the rate of mutation is approximately one mutation per 24, years in a lineage Savolainen et al. This implies that if two wolves, having mtDNA types differing by a single mutation, were domesticated say 15, years ago, the dogs of today originating from those two lineages a kezelés a népi ügynökei fekélyek során cukorbetegség have mtDNA types differing from each other only by the single original mutation or by just one or two additional mutations.

If there were several wolves having mtDNA types differing by just a few mutations, it would not be possible to fully resolve the mtDNA types of the dogs originating from them.

  1. Посмотрим, как вы будете оправдываться.
  2. Что, если Макс и Роберт уйдут и не вернутся?.
  3. Но как быть, если вагон сделает не одну остановку, а .
  4. _Согласен_ - только не сегодня, а давным-давно.

Thus, the period around 15, years ago, which is suggested to be the time for the origin of the domestic dog according to the archaeological record, cannot be fully studied using the base pairs mtDNA region available at present. In a domestication event with a subsequent population expansion, a star-like phylogeny, with the founder mtDNA type in the centre and new mtDNA types distributed radially, would be expected.

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In contrast, clade A has a complicated pattern without an easily identiable central node. A distance of up to 11 substitutional steps between mtDNA types would indicate that clade A is much older than clades B and C, and derives from an initial domestication of wolves. However, as discussed above, the dog mtDNA types in clade A do not necessarily originate from a single wolf mtDNA type even though clade A is an almost completely continuous group of mtDNA types separated from each other by single mutational steps.

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It is possible that clade A originally was a clade of several closely related wolf mtDNA types, and that several wolves having a number of these mtDNA types belonging to clade A were domesticated.

Looking more closely at clade A it has, instead of a single central node, several subclusters with star-like shape, suggesting that clade A may have originated from several wolf mtDNA types Figs 2.

The approximate age of clade A, assuming a single origin from the wolf and a subsequent population expansion, is estimated from the mean pairwise distance between East Asian dogmtDNA-sequences 3.

journal of diabetes and clinical research predatory

This calculation may be biased by the population history among the dogs and wolves. Alternatively, the maximum age of clade A can be estimated from the number of steps between the most distantly related mtDNA types, 11 substitutions apart which corresponds to ~, years.

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According to these calculations clade A would have originated 40, years ago, and if it is Domestication 33 supposed that it was formed in a domestication event from a single wolf mtDNA type, the domestic dog would have originated 40, years ago. If instead an origin of clade A from several different wolf mtDNA types is assumed, several reasonably dened subclusters can be found. To give an alternative dating of the domestication of the dog, three subclusters of clade A possibly representing three origins of dog from wolf, marked by lines in Fig.

The mean genetic distances of the sequences belonging to these subclusters to their respective journal of diabetes and clinical research predatory 0. Thus, clade A has a substructure, suggesting that it could have been formed by several wolf mtDNA types, possibly ~15, years ago.

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Thus, clade A was formed ~40, years ago but has a substructure indicating later population events, and clades B and C were formed ~15, years ago. Depending journal of diabetes and clinical research predatory how these data are interpreted, it can suggest a rst origin of domestic dogs either ~40, years ago forming only clade A, after which clades B and C were introduced into the dog gene-pool through crossbreeding between dogs and wolves ~15, years ago, but it can also suggest a single origin ~15, years ago involving all the three clades A, B and C.

The key question for the dating of the origin of the dog is the number of wolf mtDNA types that formed dog-clade A, but this question cannot be answered based on the present mtDNA data.

journal of diabetes and clinical research predatory

However, indirect evidence in the form of the universal presence of clades A, B and C at similar proportions talks in favour of a simultaneous origin of the three clades. Assuming that clade A would have originated from an initial domestication approximately 40, years ago, the dog population originating from that domestication event would be expected to have spread to other parts of the world.

An introduction of clades B and C, 15, years ago, into the already existing domestic dog gene pool, by regional crossbreedings with wolves, would require a very thorough mixing to have occurred, through migration to all parts of Eurasia, to level the frequencies of the three clades to the very similar proportions now found throughout the world.

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Alternatively, if clade A originated from a domestication 40, years ago, these dogs could have remained isolated in the original geographical region, not spreading to other parts of the world. Clades B and C would then, 15, years ago, have been introduced into the domestic dog gene pool by regional crossbreedings with wolves, after which the dogs would have spread to other parts of the world.

journal of diabetes and clinical research predatory

While the amount of migration and trade 15, years ago is not known, this scenario seems unlikely. It is also contradicted by the age of the oldest subcluster of clade A in Europe as determined from the mean genetic distance from mtDNA types unique to the western part of the world to the nodal mtDNA type shared with East Asia; 0.

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